History of Trigonometry

Running Head: History of Trigonometry History of Trigonometry Rome Fiedler History of Mathematics 501 University of Akron April 29, 2012 History of Trigonometry: An Introduction Trigonometry is useful in our world. By exploring where these concepts come from provides an understanding in putting this mathematics to use. The term Trigonometry comes from the Greek word trigon, meaning triangle and the Greek word meatria meaning measurement. However it is not native to Greek in origin. The mathematics comes from multiple people over a span of thousands of years and has touched over every major civilization.It is a combination of geometry, and astronomy and has many practical applications over history. Trigonometry is a branch of math first created by 2nd century BC by the Greek mathematician Hipparchus. The history of trigonometry and of trigonometric functions sticks to the general lines of the history of math. Early research of triangles could be found in the 2nd millennium BC, in Egyp tian and Babylonian math. Methodical research of trigonometric functions started in Greek math, and it reached India as part of Greek astronomy.In Indian astronomy, the research of trigonometric functions flourished in the Gupta dynasty, particularly as a result of Aryabhata. Throughout the Middle Ages, the research of trigonometry continued in Islamic math, while it was implemented as a discrete subject in the Latin West beginning in the Renaissance with Regiomontanus. The growth of contemporary trigonometry shifted in the western Age of Enlightenment, starting with 17th-century math and reaching its contemporary type with Leonhard Euler (1748) Etymology The word â€Å"trigonometry† originates from the Greek â€Å"trigonometria†, implying â€Å"triangle measuring†, from triangle + to measure.The name developed from the study of right triangles by applying the relation ships between the measures of its sides and angles to the study of similar triangles (Gullberg , 1996). The word was introduced by Barthoolomus ptiticus in the title of his work Trigonometria sice de solutione triangularumtractus brevis et perspicius†¦ in 1595. The contemporary word â€Å"sine†, is originated from the Latin word sinus, which implied â€Å"bay†, â€Å"bosom† or â€Å"fold†, translation from Arabic word jayb. The Arabic word is in origin of version of Sanskrit jiva â€Å"chord†.Sanskrit jiva in learned used was a synonym of jya â€Å"chord†, primarily the word for â€Å"bow-string†. Sanskrit jiva was taken into Arabic as jiba (Boyer, 1991). This word was then changed into the real Arabic word jayb, implying â€Å"bosom, fold, bay†, either by the Arabs or erroneously of the European translators such as Robert of Chester, who translated jayb into Latin as sinus. In particular Fibonacci's sinus rectus arcus was significant in creating the word sinus. Early Beginnings The origin of the subject has rich di versity. Trigonometry is not the work of one particular person or place but rather a development over time.The primitive Egyptians and Babylonians had known of theorems on the ratios of the sides of analogous triangles for many centuries. However pre-Greek societies were deficient of the concept of an angle measure and as a result, the sides of triangles were analyzed rather, a field that would be better known as â€Å"trilaterometry†(Boyer, 1991). The Babylonian astronomers kept comprehensive records on the rising and setting of stars, the movement of the planets, and the solar and lunar eclipses, all of which needed knowledge with angular distances measured on the celestial sphere.Founded on one explanation of the Plimpton 322 cuneiform tablet, some have even claimed that the primitive Babylonians had a table of secants. There was, on the other hand, much discussion as to whether it is a table of Pythagorean triples, a solution of quadratic equations, or a trigonometric tab le. The Egyptians, in contrast, applied an ancient kind of trigonometry for construction of pyramids and surveying the land in the 2nd millennium BC. The early beginnings of trigonometry ar thought to be the first numerical sequences correlating shadow lengths to time of day.Shadow tables were simple sequences of numbers which applied the shadow of a vertical stick, called a gnomon, is long in the morning and shortens to a minimum at noon. Then becomes longer and longer as the afternoon progresses (Kennedy, 1969). The shadow tables would correlate a particular hour to a particular length and were used as early as 1500 BC by the Egyptians. Similar tables were developed by other civilizations such as the Indians and Greeks. Greek mathematics Shadow tables were the primary development in creation of trigonometry however the Greeks really developed Trigonometry into an ordered science.The Greeks continued as the Babylonians astronomers did and studied the relation between angles and cir cles in lengths of chords to develop their theories on planetary position and motion (Mankiewicz, 2001). [pic] The chord of an angle subtends the arc of the angle. Ancient Greek mathematicians used the chord. Given a circle and an arc on the circle, the chord is the line that subtends the arc. A chord's perpendicular bisector traverses the center of the circle and bisects the angle. One half of the bisected chord is the sine of the bisected angle, that is, [pic] nd consequently the sine function is also known as the â€Å"half-chord†. As a result of this relationship, several trigonometric identities and theorems that are known at present were also known to Greek mathematicians, however in their equivalent chord form. Though there is no trigonometry in the works of Euclid and Archimedes, there are theorems presented in a geometric method that are similar to particular trigonometric laws or rules. Theorems on the lengths of chords are applications of the law of sines. In addit ion Archimedes' theorem on broken chords is similar to rules for sines of sums and differences of angles.From the primitive landmarks of shadow tables and the Greeks’ gain and expansion of astronomical knowledge from the Babylonians, there was a gap in the improvement of trigonometry until the time of Hipparchus. Hipparchus The first trigonometric table was in fact compiled by Hipparchus of, who is known as an as â€Å"the father of trigonometry†(Boyer, 1991). Hipparchus was the first to put into a table the corresponding values of arc and chord for a series of angles. He did this by considering every triangle was inscribed in a circle of fixed radius. Each side of the triangle became a chord, a straight line drawn between two points on a circle.To find the parts of the triangle he needed to find the length of the chord as a function of the central angle. [pic] For Example, in the diagram triangle ACB is? inscribed in circle O. So the sides of the triangle become chord ? AC, chord CB and chord AB. Hipparchus would have sought to? find the length of the chord, AC, as a function of the central? angle. He deduced a trigonometric formula for the? length of a chord sketched from one point on the circumference of? a circle to another (Motz, 1993). This could therefore be used to help understand the positioning of the planets on the sphere.Though it is not known when the methodical use of the 360 ° circle came into math, it is known that the methodical introduction of the 360 ° circle introduced a little after Aristarchus of Samos comprised of On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, since he measured an angle a part of a quadrant. It seemed that the systematic used of the 360 ° circle was mainly as a result of Hipparchus and his table of chords. Hipparchus might have taken the idea of that division from Hypsicles who had previously divided the day into 360 parts, a division of the day that might have been recommended by Babylonian astronomy .In primeval astronomy, the zodiac had been divided into twelve â€Å"signs† or thirty-six â€Å"decans†. A recurring cycle of approximately 360 days could have corresponded to the signs and decans of the zodiac by dividing each sign into 30 parts and each decan into 10 parts. It was as a result of the Babylonian sexagesimal numeral system that each degree was divided into 60 minutes and each minute was divided into 60 seconds. Though Hipparchus is attributed as the father of trigonometry all of his work is lost except one but we gain knowledge of his work through Ptolemy. [pic] http://www. ies. co. p/math/java/vector/menela/menela. html Menelaus Menelaus of Alexandria wrote in three books his Sphaerica. In Book I, he created a basis for spherical triangles analogous to the Euclidean basis for plane triangles. He established a theorem that is without Euclidean analogue, that two spherical triangles were similar if corresponding angles are equal, however he did not diff erentiate between congruent and symmetric spherical triangles. Another theorem that he established was that the sum of the angles of a spherical triangle is more than 180 °. Book II of Sphaerica applied spherical geometry to astronomy.In addition Book III contained the â€Å"theorem of Menelaus†(Boyer, 1991). He further gave his well-known â€Å"rule of six quantities†(Needham, 1986). This theorem came to paly a major role in spherical trigonometry and astronomy. It was also believed that Melaus mya have developed a second table of chords based on Hipparchus works, however these were lost (Smith, 1958). Ptolemy Afterwards, Claudius Ptolemy developed upon Hipparchus' Chords in a Circle in his Almagest, or the Mathematical Syntaxis. The Almagest was mainly a work on astronomy, and astronomy relied on trigonometry.The 13 books of the Almagest were the most prominent and important trigonometric work of ancient times. This book was a composition of both astronomy and trig onometry and was derived from the work of Hipparchus and Menelaus. Almagest contains a table of lengths of chords in a circle and a detailed set of instructions on how to construct the table. These instructions contain some of the earliest derivtions of trigonometry. Ptolemy distinguished that Menelaus started by dividing a circle into 360o, and the diameter into 120 parts. He did this because 3 x 120 = 360, using the previous application of 3 for pi.Then each part is divided into sixty parts, each of these again into sixty parts, and so on. This system of parts was based on the Babylonian sexagesimal or base 60-numeration system, which was the only system available at the time for handling fractions (Maor, 1998). This system was based on 60 so that the number of degrees corresponding to the circumference of a circle would be the same as the number of days in a year, which the Babylonians believed to be 360 days (Ball 1960). From Menlaus Ptolemy developed the concept that the sine i s half of a chord.Ptolemy took Menelaus’ construction _ crd  · 2_ and said that the complement angle could be written as _ crd  · (180 o -2_), since 180o was half the circumference of the circle. Since today, cos_ = sin(90 o -_), it can be shown that cos_ = _ crd  · (180 o -2_), using a similar argument as the one shown above (van Brummelen, 2009). From these two expressions, one of the greatest identities known today was created. That is, (_ crd  · 2_) 2 + {_ crd  · (180 o -2_)} 2 = 1 which is exactly sin2_ + cos2_ = 1 (van Brummelen, 2009). [pic]http://nrich. maths. org/6853 [pic] http://en. ikipedia. org/wiki/Ptolemy's_table_of_chords Using his table, Ptolemy believed that one could solve any planar triangle, if given at least one side of the triangle (Maor, 1998). A theorem that was fundamental to Ptolemy's calculation of chords was what was still known at present as Ptolemy's theorem, that the sum of the products of the opposite sides of a recurring quadrilater al was equivalent to the product of the diagonals. Ptolemy used these results to develop his trigonometric tables; however whether these tables were originated from Hipparchus' work could not be proved.Neither the tables of Hipparchus nor those of Ptolemy had survived to the present day, though descriptions by other ancient authors exhibits they existed. In his work, Ptolemy founded formulas for the chord of? difference and an equivalent for our modern day half-angle? formulas. Because of Ptolemy’s discoveries, given a chord of? an arc in a circle, the chord of half an arc can be determined as? well. Ptolemy also discovered chords of sum and difference, chords of half an arc, and chords of half degree, from which he then built up his tables to the nearest second of chords of arcs from half degree.In the Almagest, a true distinction was made between plane and spherical trigonometry. Plane trigonometry is the branch of trigonometry which applies its principles to plane triangle s; Spherical trigonometry, on the other hand, is the branch of trigonometry in which its principles are applied to spherical triangles, which are triangles on the surface of the sphere. Ptolemy began with spherical trigonometry, for he worked with spherical triangles in many of his theorems and proofs. However, when calculating the chords of arcs, he unintentionally developed a theory for plane trigonometry. Trigonometry was created for use in astronomy; and because spherical trigonometry was for this purpose the more useful tool, it was the first to be developed. The use of plane trigonometry†¦ is foreign to Greek mathematicians† (Kline, 1972). Spherical trigonometry was developed out of necessity for the interest and application of astronomers. In fact, spherical trigonometry was the most prevalent branch of trigonometry until the 1450s, even though Ptolemy did introduce a basis for plane trigonometry in the Almagest in 150 A. D. IndiaThe next major contribution to trig onometry came from India. The trigonometry of Ptolemy was based on the functional relationship between chords of a circle and central angles they subtend. The Siddhantas, a book thought to be written by Hindu scholars in late fourth century, early fifth century A. D. , changed Ptolemy’s trigonometry to the study of the relationship between half of a chord of a circle and half of the angle subtended at he center by the whole chord (Kennedy, 1969). This came from the basis for the modern trigonometric function known as the sine.The Siddhantas introduction to the sine function is the chief contribution from India and marks a transformation in trigonometry. Indian mathematicians also contributed by creating their own sine table. Arya-Bhata, born in 476, was a great Indian mathematician and astronomer (Ball, 1960). He composed a book called Aryabhathiya, which contained most of the essential ideas we associate with sine and cosine. His most outstanding contribution to the topic, w hich distinguishes him from the other mathematicians of this time, was his work on sine differences (van Brummelen, 2009).His definition of sine was literally â€Å"half chord† and was abbreviated jya or jiva, which simply meant, â€Å"chord† (Smith 615). Sines were given in minutes, at intervals of 225 minutes. This measurement was not of the sines themselves, but instead, it was the measurement of the differences between the sines. His method of calculating them was as follows. The first sine was equal to 225. The second sine was defined as any particular sine being worked with in order to calculate the sine that directly follows (Clark 29).It was found using the following pattern: (225 – the previous sine) + (225 + the previous sine) 225 this total was then subtracted from 225 to obtain the sine table. Second sine: 225 – 225 = 0 225 / 225 = 1 0 + 1= 1 225 – 1 = 224 Third sine:? 225 – 224 = 1 (225 + 224) / 225 ? 2 225 – 2 = 222 (van Brummelen, 2009). Arya-Bhata concluded that dividing a quarter of the circumference of a circle (essentially one quadrant of the unit circle) into as many equal parts, with the resulting triangles and quadrilaterals would have, on the radius, the same amount of sines of equal arcs.Doing this, he was able to form a table of natural sines corresponding to the angles in the first quadrant (van Brummelen, 2009). Although much of his work had the right idea, many of Arya-Bhata’s calculations were inaccurate. Later, in 1150AD, an Indian mathematician known as Bhaskara gave a more accurate method of constructing a table of sines, which considered sines in every degree (van Brummelen, 2009). Although the Indian mathematicians made attempts at creating a table to help with astronomy, their table of sines was not as accurate as that of the Greeks. Islamic mathematicsThe ancient works were translated and developed in the medieval Islamic world by Muslim mathematicians of mostly Persian and Arab descent, who explained a large number of theorems which freed the subject of trigonometry from reliance upon the complete quadrilateral, as was the case in Greek mathematics as a result of the application of Menelaus' theorem. In accordance with E. S. Kennedy, it was following that development in Islamic math that â€Å"the first real trigonometry appeared, in the sense that only then did the object of study become the spherical or plane triangle, its sides and angles† (Kennedy, 1969).E. S. Kennedy pointed out that whilst it was possible in pre-Islamic math to calculate the magnitudes of a spherical figure, in theory, by use of the table of chords and Menelaus' theorem, the application of the theorem to spherical problems was very complex actually (Kennedy, 1969). With the aim of observing holy days on the Islamic calendar in which timings were established by phases of the moon, astronomers at first used Menalaus' method to compute the place of the moon and stars, a lthough that method proved to be ungainly and complex.It engaged creation of two intersecting right triangles; by applying Menelaus' theorem it was possible to solve one of the 6 sides, however only if the other 5 sides were known. To tell the time from the sun's elevation, for example, repeated applications of Menelaus' theorem were needed. For medieval Islamic astronomers, there was a clear challenge to find a simpler trigonometric rule (Gingerich, 1986). In the early 9th century, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi c a Persian Mathematician, was an early pioneer in spherical trigonometry and wrote a treatise on the subject creating accurate sine and cosine tables.By the 10th century, in the work of Abu al-Wafa' al-Buzjani, another Persian Mathematician established the angle addition formulas, e. g. , sin(a + b), and discovered the sine formula for spherical trigonometry. Abu’l-Wafa is believed to have helped introduced the concept of the tangent function. He also may have had s omething to do with the development of secant and cosecant. His trigonometry took on a more systematic form in which he proved theorems for double and half angle formulas. The law of sines, is also attributed to Abu’l-Wafa, even? hough it was first introduced by Ptolemy. This is in part? due to the fact that Abu’l-Wafa presented a? straightforward formulation of the law of sines for? spherical triangles, which states [pic] where A, B, and C are surface angles of the spherical? triangle and a, b, and c are the central angles of the? spherical triangle. In 830, Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi created the first table of cotangents. Muhammad ibn Jabir al-Harrani al-Battani found the reciprocal functions of secant and cosecant, and created the first table of cosecants for each degree from 1 ° to 90 °.By 1151 AD, the ideas of the six trigonometric functions existed, they were just not named as we know them today. Europe It is from the Arabic influence that trigonometry reache d Europe. Western Europe favored Arabic mathematics over Greek geometry. Arabic arithmetic and algebra were on a more elementary level than Greek geometry had been during the time of the Roman Empire. Romans did not display much interest in Greek trigonometry or any facets of Greek math. Therefore, Arabic math appealed to them since it was easier for them to comprehend.Leonardo Fibonacci was one mathematician who became acquainted with trigonometry during his extensive travels in Arab countries. He then presented the knowledge he gained in Practica geometriae in 1220 AD (Gullberg, 1996). The first distinction of trigonometry as a science separate from astronomy is credited to the Persian, Nasir Eddin. He helped to differentiate plane trigonometry and spherical trigonometry. Other than that, little development occurred from the time of the 1200’s to the 1500’s, aside for the developments of the Germans in the late 15th and early 16th century.Germany was becoming a prosp erous nation at the time and was engaged in much trade. Their interests also developed in navigation, calendar formation, and astronomy. This interest in astronomy precipitated a general interest and need for trigonometry (Kline, 1972). Included in this movement around the time of 1464, the German astronomer and mathematician, Regiomontanus (also known as Iohannes Molitoris) formulated a work known as De Triangulis Omnimodis, a compilation of the trigonometry of that time.When it was finally printed in 1533, it became an important medium of spreading the knowledge of trigonometry throughout Europe (Gullberg, 1996). The first book began with fifty propositions on the solutions of triangles using the properties of right triangles. Although the word â€Å"sine† was derived from the Arabs, Regiomontanus read the term in an Arabic manuscript in Vienna and was the first to use it in Europe. The second book began with a proof of the law of sines and then included problems involving how to determine sides, angles, and areas of plane triangles.The third book contained theorems found on Greek spherics before the use of trigonometry, and the fourth was based on spherical trigonometry. In the sixteenth century, Nicholas Copernicus was a revolutionary astronomer who could also be deemed as a trigonometer. He studied law, medicine and astronomy. He completed a treatise, known as De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, the year he died in 1543. This work-contained information on trigonometry and it was similar to that of Regiomontanus, although it is not clear if they were connected or not.While this was a great achievement, Copernicus’ student, Rheticus, an Indian mathematician, who lived during the years 1514-1576, went further and combined the work of both these men and published a two-volume work, Opus palatinum de triangulus. Trigonometry really began to expand and formalize at this point as the functions with respect to arcs of circles were disregarded. Fran cois Viete who practiced law and spent his leisure time devoted to mathematics also . contributed trigonometry around this time. He came to be known as â€Å"the father of the generalized analytic approach to trigonometry† (Boyer, 1991).He thought of trigonometry as? an independent branch of mathematics, and he worked? without direct reference to chords in a circle. He made? tables for all six trigonometric functions for angles to the? nearest minute. Viete was also one of the first to use the? formula for the law of tangents, which states the following: [pic] Viete was one of the first mathematicians to focus on analytical trigonometry, the branch of trigonometry which focuses on the relations and properties of the trigonometric functions.This form of trigonometry became more prevalent around the time of 1635 with the work of Roberval and Torricelli. They developed the first sketch of half an arch of a sine curve. This important development assisted in the progression of tri gonometry from a computational emphasis to a functional approach. This formed the basis of the European contribution of trigonometry. From the influence of oriental scientists, the Europeans focused on the computation of tables and the discovery of functional relations between parts of triangles.Europe developed appropriate symbols, which replaced the verbal rules and ordinary language in which the subject was usually presented. Previously, trigonometry was expressed in lengthy passages of confusing words, but the Europeans introduced such symbols as sin, cos, tan, etc. to simplify the subject and make it more concise. Prior to the analytic approach, the main usage of trigonometry was to measure geometric figures, but the transition of its influence from geometry to calculus began with the discovery of infinite series representations for the trigonometric functions.Trigonometric series became useful in the theory of astronomy, around the time of the eighteenth century. Since astrono mical phenomena are periodic, it was useful to have trigonometric series because they are periodic functions as well. The use of trigonometric series was introduced to determine the positions of the planets and interpolation, which is a mathematical procedure that estimates the values of a function at positions between given values (Kline, 1972). Many continued to make contributions to Trigonometry looking for more accurate tables to determine the six functions.These works continued up until the invention of the Scientific Calculator in 1968. In society today, trigonometry is used in physics to aide in the understanding of space, engineering and chemistry. Within mathematics it is typically seen in mainly in calculus, but also in linear algebra and statistics. Despite the minimal information available on the history of Trigonometry it is still a vital part of mathematics. The History shows progression from astronomy and geometry and the movement from spherical to plane geometry.Toda y, Trigonometry is used to understand space, engineering, chemistry as well as mathematics. By exploring the history of trigonometry we see the importance of it in our world. References Boyer, Carl B. (1991), A History of Mathematics (Second ed. ). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 3 Bressoud, D. M. (2010). Historical Refelctions on Teaching Trigonometry. Mathematics Teacher, 104 (2), 106-112. Brummelen, G. V. (2009). The Mathematics of the Heavens and the Earth. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Gingerich, Owen (1986), â€Å"Islamic astronomy†. Scientific American 254 (10): 74.Gullberg, Jan. (1996)Mathematics from the Birth Of Numbers. New York:W. W. Norton and Company, Inc. Joyce, D. E. (n. d. ). History of Trigonometry Outline. Retrieved 3 21, 2012, from History of Trigonometry Outline: http://aleph0. clarku. edu/~djoyce/ma105/trighist. html Kennedy, E. S. (1969), â€Å"The History of Trigonometry†. 31st Yearbook (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Washingt on DC) (cf. Haq, Syed Nomanul. The Indian and Persian background. pp. 60–3, in Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman (1996). History of Islamic Philosophy. Routledge. pp. 52–70.Kline, Morris. (1972) Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. New York: Oxford University Press. Kluemper, A. (2010, 3 24). History of Trigonometry. Retrieved 3 5, 2012, from www. xtimeline. com: http://www. xtimeline. com/timeline/History-of-Trigonometry Mankiewicz, Richard. (2001)The Story of Mathematics. New Jersy:Princetion University Press. Maor, E. (1998). Trigonometric Delights. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Miller, S. (2001). Understanding Transformations of Periodic Functions through Art. Mathematics Teacher , 94 (8), 632-635.Moussa, Ali (2011), â€Å"Mathematical Methods in Abu al-Wafa's Almagest and the Qibla Determinations†. Arabic Sciences and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. 21 (1): 1–56. Needham, Joseph (1986), Science and Civilization in Chi na: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Rogers, L. (n. d. ). The History of Trigonometry- Part 1. Retrieved 3 1, 2012, from Enriching Mathematics: http://nrich. maths. org/6843/index Suzuki, J. (2009). Mathematics in Historical Context. Washington D. C. : The Mathematical Association of America.Smith, D. E. (1958)History of Mathematics. New York:Dover Publications, Inc. Toomer, G. J. (1998), Ptolemy's Almagest, Princeton University Press. Weber, K. (2005). Students Understanding of Trigonometric Functions. Mathematics Education Research Journal , 17 (3), 91-112. www. cartage. org. (n. d. ). Trigonometry History. Retrieved 3 5, 2012, from Trigonometry History: http://www. cartage. org. lb/en/themes/sciences/Mathematics/Trigonometry/history/History%20. html van Brummelen, G. (2009)The Mathematics of the Heavens and Earth. Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford.

Is Police Brutality a Serious Problem in the US? Essay

Introduction In the article, â€Å"Police Brutality is Over-Sensationalizedâ€Å", Auerback made plenty of logical arguments about the issue of police brutality. But, the statistics he showed was from the city of Chicago. For example the Rodney King case was the first major case tried in court. The Rodney King case was about an African American being pulled over for no apparent reason. Eventually the officer was acquitted of all charges. Why do police officers just feel that they are above the law? Are they above the law? Despite Auerback showing many valid points throughout the article, his argument was very one sided or biased. Summary The article ‘’the article police brutality is Over-Sensationalized’’, (Auerback, 2010) is about police brutality not being as big of a problem as the media makes it out to be. According to Auerback (2010) he claims’’ police brutality is not as commonplace as Americans claim’’. The author uses many statistics but they are only from the city of Chicago. But throughout the entire article he continuously was saying that police are put in challenging positions. 1st major point In the paragraph â€Å"The Thin Lineâ€Å", the author spoke about how excessive force by a police officer was a big problem. Auerback explained that police officers deal with dangerous situations through their regular day. Also, he described cases such as the Rodney King beating in Los Angeles being some of the reason police brutality was widespread. He said that the statistics he used couldn’t explicate a significant reason. In the paragraph â€Å"The Evidence Suggests Otherwiseâ€Å", Auerback clarified statistics showing that  police brutality was not as bad as the media makes it out to be. For example, there was a study done by the Urbana – Champaign independent Media Center on police brutality. The results showed that in Illinois 2854 police officers had complaints about police brutality, but surprisingly only 7 percent of the officers were regulated. Later on in the paragraph Auerback argued that police officers have the right to use excessive force to a certain extent. Basically in this paragraph the author is arguing that there isn’t enough evidence to prove police brutality isn’t a big deal. The paragraph â€Å"having the Opposite Effectâ€Å", Auerback explained how the media portrays the police sometimes makes the job harder, and hurts he communities. Throughout the paragraph he showed that police brutality was a very huge charge. Also the author showed that not all police officers are bad guys as the media portrays them. 2nd Major Point There were many logical arguments and valid questions to ask during the article â€Å"Police Brutality is Over Sensationalizedâ€Å". One logical argument about the article would be why were there only a few arguments? If the author would have made the article a two-way debate about police brutality. The article would be drastically changed. Auerback did explain police brutality could be a problem but, he explained police are always in the right basically. Another question I had that wasn’t answered was are all police officers bad? There are valid examples that some police officers take their authority too far. Such as the Rodney King beating in Los Angeles made police brutality come to the light. But, because of some police officers making bad decisions and using excessive force, they give police a bad name. Lastly, another argument would be that a police officers` is very dangerous, but are they above the law? Most police officers are some of the nicest people you will meet. They put their lives on the line to serve and protect us citizens. However when you look at the statistics shown in the article they show cops get away a lot of crimes. Such as in the article the statistics done in Chicago. Throughout five years Chicago saw 1774 complains per year with only 5% of the officer having the complaints. But, in the identical survey done only 1 percent had enough evidence to start a case. That is very disturbing to hear. Why do the police officers get away with  such crimes? The reason is there is just not much evidence to prove the point. The three logical points made by the article would be the police was above the law, and why do they have so much power. 3rd Major Point Auerbacks` angle of vision was very demanded by his background which gives him ethos or credibility but also shows he could be biased. His background gives him a lot of credibility. For example he had seventeen years of experience in public policy and political science. He graduated from Boston College Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, also working as a federal contractor. With all being said his perspective is biased by him working with the government. The governments’ perspective is that the government is always right. Which Auerbacks’ angle of vision is basically police are always in the right no matter what. If the author would have shown both sides of the issue of police brutality the article would be more credible. Also, the statistics shown in the article was only from the city of Chicago. If Auerback showed statistics of the entire country instead of using just a metropolitan city then the article wouldn’t be so biased. Auerbacks` angle of vision discredited the article. The author made it seem like officers always has a reason to use excessive force. Conclusion In conclusion, the article â€Å"Police Brutality is Over Sensationalizedâ€Å", spoke about how police officers use excessive force and how it was a huge problem. The author tried to downplay the issue by using examples of cases where the police officers was in the right. But, in reality there are plenty of examples of police officers using excessive force for no reason at all. His argument throughout the article was that the media over-exposes the issue. Auerback used only a certain amount of logical arguments. Despite Auerback showing many valid points throughout the article, his argument was very one-sided or biased. Works Cited Auerback, Michael. â€Å"Police Brutality is Over Sensationalizedâ€Å". John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, June Johnson. â€Å"The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writingâ€Å" 7th Edition

The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Art - Essay Example The building rises to a height of about 70 feet, and the whole structure is made of iron, stones, brick, with no wood being used anywhere in its construction. (Fairman Rogers, published in ‘The Philadelphia Inquirer’, on April 24, 1876) In keeping with the high Victorian Gothic style, the building is made of richly colored materials, the faà §ade being made of green and red sandstone along with purplish Bluestone. The architectural style is an eclectic mix of Gothic and Classical architecture, and it is revolutionary in the context that, until then, there was no other building that could boast of a â€Å"13th century Gothic arch on a 17th-century mansarded pavilion.† The building opens onto Broad Street, with the faà §ade 65 inches high. The North is flanked by Cherry Street, Burnt Street on to the east and Apple tree Street towards the South. The building is planned with a central corridor which is about 15 feet wide, with rooms on either side. The first floor of the building, houses the library, art studios and offices, while a mezzanine floor has a conservation laboratory, the boardroom and the plumbing. The museum’s collection or the artworks are housed on the second floor, called the Gallery, where the corridor is intersected by a Rotunda which is about 52'6" x 38'2". Pennsylvania, being an industrial city, Frank Furness could freely use â€Å"riveted iron truss that held aloft the great weight of the blind wall of the north faà §ade.† (Lewis)Above the Gallery is the attic made up of iron trusses.

CORPORATE AND SECURITIES LAW Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

CORPORATE AND SECURITIES LAW - Case Study Example The paper applies both corporate and securities law to solve the issue existing at Bagofglass, Inc. (BofG). Peter, the petitioner in the case, seeks compensation for damages caused by Bog as provided under section 11 of corporate law. Bagofglass Inc., through its CEO, Mr. Erwin Mainway, signed the registration statement. The statement took effect on January 1, 2011 after its successful filing on December 10, 2010. In the statement, Bagofglass Inc declared public offering of its shares. Mr. Peter bought shares after the statement became effective. Each share sold at ten dollars; Peter purchased a thousand shares. On January 15, the Company violated the agreement stipulated in the statement by selling its shares at fifteen dollars per share. Peter, the plaintiff, therefore, alleges that Bagofglass violated the law by omitting the facts stated in the registration statement. Therefore, the registration statement signed by Erwin was misleading. In this case, Bagofglass Inc’s CEO is liable as the signatory and director of the corporation. Corporate Law provides that if an individual purchases the shares not in the initial offer, except when from a third party, the plaintiff may seek compensation for damages caused by false statements as provided under section 11. Therefore, it is possible for Mr. Peter to recover against Bagofglass and its staff involved in giving a misleading registration statement. The staff includes Mr. Ewin Mainway (Bagofglass Inc.’s CEO), the law firm representing Bagofglass Inc., Dewy, Cheat hem and How (DUCHY) and the accounting firm representing BofG, Ernest and Ernest, LLP (E&E). The law firm, DC&H is liable if they expertise the portion of the initial public offering of Bagofglass, Inc. The aforementioned statement takes effect only if the conducted reasonable investigations provide facts beyond reasonable doubt that DUCHY participated at the time when the registration statement thereon was untrue. However, DC&H are not liable in

MONEY AND BANKING ASSIGNMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

MONEY AND BANKING ASSIGNMENT - Essay Example Besides, they also purchase and sell bonds. Macesich (2000) argues further that money plays a vital role in the economic activities since it virtually makes economic transaction possible. When the supply of cash is higher in the economy, consumers tend to have more money. This in turn encourages spending. On the other hand firms or businesses or ventures respond by increasing either raw materials or production. Because business activities tend to be spread, the demand for labor as well as capital goods increases. Increase in expansion of money supply consequently results into increase in prices more so if the growth of output approaches the limited capacity. At this stage, consumers begin anticipating inflation. However, lenders begin aggravating for higher interest rates to balance the anticipated reduction in the purchasing power while offsetting the loans. The converse is true when money supply subsidizes or the growth rate declines. For instant, Federal Reserve policy plays a crucial role in determining money supply. It d oes so by influencing its deposits in the bank. They do this by mandating commercial banks to hold part of the deposits that they accept. These institutions comply by either holding cash in the vaults or holding deposits that they make at the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve in turn manipulates their reserve by lending cash to banks and changing the discount rate on loans. Therefore, when the supply of money in the economy is high, despite the interest rate target, the central banks tend to device mechanism that are aimed at limiting cash flow in the economy. When this is done, the demand for cash that is apparently at the bank reserves increases. This increase in the demand compels the central banks to stop holding money in the reserves. Central banks encounter a challenge of policy enforcement in the domestic banking system

Future, past. present Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Future, past. present - Essay Example Therefore, this discussion seeks to analyze the past, present and future of law enforcement, with a view to establishing how this particular component of the legal system has evolved over time, how it has related with the other components forming the criminal justice system, its present state, and the likely nature of this component in the future. The past of law enforcement The history of the concept of law enforcement dates back to the settlement of the colonists in America, where the colonists who settled in America imported their constable system of law enforcement, with each community required to constitute a watchdog force that kept peace while dealing with the criminals and crime resolution, under the leadership of a chief peacekeeper, also referred to as the constable (Bumgarner, 2006). This was mainly applicable in the urban regions where the settlers had established their settlements. In the southern states, the concept of law enforcement developed with the establishment of the slave patrols, which was meant to whip and terrorize slaves, to prevent them from holding meeting or leaving their plantations without the express authorization of their masters, or even travelling (Roth, 2011).The first organized and paid policing force was established by City of Boston in 1635, followed by Texas in 1835, whose police force was referred to as the rangers, followed by the Municipality of New York in 1884, and eventually the other cities started following suit, but it is only until the Civil War, that a uniformed law enforcement force was established, which used nightsticks as their main weapon (Roth, 2011). Despite this organization, the law enforcement forces were controlled by politicians who presided over the cities and the municipalities, and thus they operated on the basis of their orders. However, the data of the number of the police officers in America remains scanty especially regarding the past, considering that the police officers established by diffe rent municipalities and cities could not be practically enumerated, since the law enforcement forces were not organized into a full disciplined force (Bumgarner, 2006). However, the existing data regarding the earliest disciplined force that was well organized is that of the U.S. Capitol Police (USCP) formed in 1852, which comprised of the 7 officers, with a chief officer, 4 assistant chiefs and 2 other ground patrol officers (Bumgarner, 2006). The U.S. Capitol Police (USCP) forms one of the few primary law enforcement force, still maintained by the federal government, which currently comprises of over 1,000 disciplined officers, forming the USCP federal department. The major reforms in the law enforcement started in the 20th century, where reforms regarding the qualifications, education and training of the enforcement officers, as well as the elimination of the political control over the law enforcement came into the limelight. The present of law enforcement The present state of la w enforcement in the US now comprises of well trained and disciplined forces, with well structured recruitment formulae and requirements. The other aspect of the current state of the law enforcement component of the justice system is that their duties and responsibilities are now well cut out, with such provisions enshrined in the constitution and in the law enforcement policies and regulations that guide their operations. Presently, as

Advanced Construction Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Advanced Construction Law - Essay Example The main aspect that needs to be understood is that an LOI is not a contract; at best it is an offer that needs to be confirmed or negated by the other party. However, a particular contractor by dint of some merit has been chosen over others. â€Å" It applies also where the sub-contractor has been chosen for his specialist trade. – â€Å"British Waggon Co.-v-Lea (1880)† 2 (Footnote: In this case it was held that delegation of contractual duties is possible except when individual’s skill, competencies and other resources are not considered while effecting the delegation.) This was again confirmed in the case of â€Å"Southway Group Ltd-v-Wolff and Wolff (1991)† 3 (footnote: Novation is another means by which contractual obligations can be "transferred" from one person to another) That being said, it is also necessary to state that in construction business, the main documents are the floatation of tender. As per accepted protocol, the contractor or owner floats tenders which are quoted by different parties, these tenders are examined and the final bid is finalized. â€Å"The form and content of LOIs are as varied as the circumstances in which they may be issued.No doubt it is this variety that led Robert Goff J in British Steel Corp v Cleveland Bridge and Engineering Co Ltd (1984) to observe that there is "no hard and fast answer to the question whether a letter of intent will give rise to a binding agreement: everything must depend on the circumstances of the particular case." 4 Sometimes there is an oral promise by one party to do something and for another to remunerate him on his doing it. â€Å" The latter transaction is really no more than a standing offer which, if acted upon before it lapses or is lawfully withdrawn, will result in a binding contract.† 5 However, in this case, although the parties wished and hoped for the contract to be finalized, it did

West Coast Mainline Modernisation. Project Analysis Essay

West Coast Mainline Modernisation. Project Analysis - Essay Example The various transportation facilities and infrastructure that are developed in the process are roads, bridges, rails and other facilities that aid in mobility and access. These developments are done in stage or per project basis that ascertains specific end-results employing project management. Project Management is previously a management philosophy that soon evolved into a business process (Kerzner, 2009). It involves planning, organising, securing and managing resources to achieve goals. It is to be understood that a project has its specific start and ending, and is dependent on time, budget or funding, and deliverables. It is usually expected to bring positive or beneficial results. Its temporary nature make it unique from business operations which is a continuous one or somewhat permanent in the delivery of products or services. This paper will discuss and analyse a rail industry project – the West Coast Main Line Modernisation - and describe the project management proble ms encountered in this project completion. In the project implementation of a rail, various management stages involved are Output Definition, Pre-Feasibility, Option Selection, Single Option Development, Detailed Design, Construction, Testing and Commissioning, Scheme Handback and Project Close Out (Network Rail, 2003). †¢ A brief description of your chosen project. The West Coast Main Line or WCML is the rail backbone of United Kingdom when it comes to importance and number of populations served. It underwent several modernisation stages and the latest of which was the Network Rail modernisation that commenced by the 1990s. Plans for the upgrade and renewal of the line by Virgin Trains for the tilting Pendolino trains with increased speed of 140 mph or 225 km/h was aborted when deemed ambitious. The proposed upgrade involved the adoption of the moving block signalling which worked with light rail systems and metro lines, but not yet proven with high-speed heavy rail network (O ffice of Rail Regulation, 2007). Owned by Network Rail, WCML is the busiest mixed traffic railway route provider, an intercity link connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow to the West Midlands, North West, North Wales, and the Central Belt of Scotland. Handling about 75 million passengers per annum translated to about 43% of UK’s rail freight traffic, it is also links many other smaller towns and cities serving as a suburban railway. The various operators of the WCML are Virgin Trains, East Coast, London Midland, Southern, CrossCountry, First TransPennine Express, Northern Rail, Arriva Trains Wales, First ScotRail, DB Schenker Rail (UK), GB Railfreight, Freightliner Ltd., and Direct Rail Services Ltd (Network Rail, 2007). It was designated a priority Trans-European Networks route. It connects to European mainland via the Channel Tunnel. In 1955, it was modernised and electrified implemented in stages from 1959 to 1974. Electrification was first implem ented on the route from Crewe to Manchester completed by 1960, followed by Crewe to Liverpool by 1962, London by 1965, Birmingham by 1967, and Weaver Junction to Glasgow by 1974. The introduction of the Inter-City brand in 1966 came with high-speed long-distance services where journey clocked in 2 hours and 40 minutes from London to Manchester or Liverpool (Thomas, 1971). Modern coaches followed with the Mark 2 and air-conditioned Mark 3, and soon linespeed was raised to 110 mph or 177 km/h with electric locomotives that doubled passenger traffic from 1962 to 1975 (British Railways

Loss Prevention Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Loss Prevention - Essay Example During the percent of the population residing I rented homes. Every other person wants to have his or her own company then each small thing regarding security becomes vital. While setting up an office, land value was not at all a constraining factor for the businessmen. The important elements of marketing plan are to precisely define the business, identify the goals and serve as the firm's resume. Pro forma balance sheet, an income statement, planning precise strategies, security and cash flow analyses comprises the basic components of a marketing plan. Preparing a marketing plan helps in the allocation of resources properly, making good decisions and handling of unseen or unexpected complications that may become hurdle in the future development of the business. One of the important aspects of marketing plan is that it provides organized information about the company and importantly a good business plan helps in attaining a loan application. Other important applications include informing the details of the company to the sales personnel, suppliers and others so that they become aware of company's goals and achievements. Retail business is a hugely profit making business. It is one of the booming businesses that have given fruitful results to those who invested to gain profits. A retail business can give good results if the infrastructure of concerned shop, market or trade is good. Basic facilities like water, electricity, food and shelter should be sufficient. Retail prices will increase when the land is in the center of the city, or in industrial areas, or in residential areas. Infrastructure of the city or town plays an important role because those are the basic amenities that an investor would look into, before buying the land. Lack of infrastructure and basic facilities would lead to downfall in prices of the land and investors will lose faith and retract the investment. This would be huge disaster for any businessman. Therefore before putting a land to sale check the basic amenities and infrastructure and the price of the land accordingly. Retail business has become a hotspot for retail businessmen domestically and internationally. The main reason for this is the presence of strong infrastructure, marketing and good facilities like electricity. One of the important factors that have increased the retail corporate is the high rate of ownership. A general definition of valuation of property is to state the actual value of the property both according to the government and private (commercial) sector. While valuating a property government will not consider the commercial demand that property is possessed with. Apart from state owned properties commercial and residential properties are in boom these days. Resident localities are fast growing and becoming some of the costliest living areas. Commercial properties that fetch income are of many kinds. Commercial show rooms and establishment of corporate offices are touching the heights of the retail business. Commercial show room owners are ready to pay any amount of money to get a place in the most commercially viable areas. One of the important things among retail companies is transportation of goods. For transportation these companies depend on companies like DHL, UPS, etc. The

The Life of Harriet Tubman Essay Example for Free

The Life of Harriet Tubman Essay Originally named Araminta, or Minty, Harriet Tubman was born in early 1819 or 1820 on the plantation of Anthony Thompson, south of Madison in Dorchester County, Maryland. Tubman was the fifth of nine children of Harriet Rit Green and Benjamin Ross, both slaves. Edward Brodas, the stepson of Anthony Thompson, claimed ownership of Rit and her children through his mother Mary Pattison Brodas Thompson. Ben Ross, the slave of Anthony Thompson, was a timber inspector who supervised and managed a vast timbering operation on Thompsons land. The Rosss relatively stable family life on Thompsons plantation came to abrupt end sometime in late 1823 or early 1824 when Edward Brodas took Rit and her then five children, including Tubman, to his own farm in Bucktown, a small agricultural village ten miles to the east. Brodas often hired Tubman out to temporary masters, some who were cruel and negligent, while selling other members of her family illegally to out of state buyers, permanently fracturing her family (http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/hwny-tubman.html). At age six, Araminta was old enough to be considered able to work. She did not work in the fields though. Edward Brodas, her master, lent her to a couple who first put her to work weaving she was beaten frequently. When she slacked off at this job the couple gave her the duty of checking muskrat traps. Araminta caught the measles while doing this work. The couple thought she was incompetent and took her back to Brodas. When she got well, she was taken in by a woman as a housekeeper and baby-sitter. Araminta was whipped during the work here and was sent back to Brodas after eating one of the womans sugar cubes. As was the custom on all plantations, when she turned eleven, she started wearing a bright cotton bandana around her head indicating she was no longer a child. She was also no longer known by her basket name, Araminta. Now she would be called Harriet, after her mother. At the age of 12 Harriet Ross was seriously injured by a blow to the head, inflicted by a white overseer for refusing to assist in tying up a man who had attempted escape. Adulthood In 1844 at the age of 25, she married John Tubman, a free African American who did not share her dream of escaping. Since she was a slave, she knew there could be a chance that she could be sold and her marriage would be split apart. Harriet dreamed of traveling north. There, she would be free and would not have to worry about having her marriage split up by the slave trade. But, John did not want her to go north. He said he was fine where he was and that there was no reason for moving north. She said she would go by herself. He replied that if she ran off, he would tell her master. She did not believe him until she saw his face and then she knew he meant it. Her goal to achieve freedom was too large for her to give up though. So in 1849 she left her husband and escaped to Philadelphia in 1849. When she crossed the border she said,† I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person now that I was free, there was such glory over everything, the sun came up like gold through the threes, and over the fields, and I felt like I was in heaven† (The Secret History of Dreaming 185). Accomplishments After escaping from enslavement in 1849, Tubman dedicated herself to fighting for freedom, equality, and justice for the remainder of her long life, earning her the biblical name Moses and a place among the nations most famous historical figures. She became an Underground Railroad conductor after she had escaped to the north. She went back and helped free more than 300 slaves during 1850-1858 (The Story of Harriet Tubman: Conductor of the Underground Railroad). During the Civil War, Tubman worked for the Union army as a nurse, a cook, and a spy. Her experience leading slaves along the Underground Railroad was especially helpful because she knew the land well. She recruited a group of former slaves to hunt for rebel camps and report on the movement of the Confederate troops. In 1863, she went with Colonel James Montgomery and about 150 black soldiers on a gunboat raid in South Carolina. Because she had inside information from her scouts, the Union gunboats were able to surprise the Confederate rebels. At first, when the Union Army came through and burned plantations, slaves hid in the woods. But when they realized that the gunboats could take them behind Union lines to freedom, they came running from all directions, bringing as many of their belongings as they could carry. Tubman later said, I never saw such a sight. Tubman played other roles in the war effort, including working as a nurse. Folk remedies she learned during her years living in Maryland would come in very handy. Tubman worked as a nurse during the war, trying to heal the sick. Many people in the hospital died from dysentery, a disease associated with terrible diarrhea. Tubman was sure she could help cure the sickness if she could find some of the same roots and herbs that grew in Maryland. One night she searched the woods until she found water lilies and cranes bill (geranium). She boiled the water lily roots and the herbs and made a bitter-tasting brew that she gave to a man who was dying-and it worked! Slowly he recovered. Tubman saved many people in her lifetime. Harriet Tubman, after a life of helping people, died at age 93 on March 10, 1913, at Auburn, New York.

The Feeding Of The Five Thousand Religion Essay

The Feeding Of The Five Thousand Religion Essay Meier believes the version of the feeding of the five thousand story from Mark 8: 14-21, when compared to the second feeding miracle, is a redaction; that is being reworded. This comment is loosely based on the fact that the disciples did not experience the miracle face to face (vis-à  -vis). The version of John has similarities from the one in Mark 8: 1-10, said while the same cannot be said about the one found in Mark 6:32-44; it cannot be found. For example, the question of whence occurs in both Mark 8: 4 and John 6:5. The main difficulty that Meir has is the John story of the feed story is independent on the version found in the book of Mark. He feels it does not make sense that the version found in Mark 8 is considered the redaction of Mark 6, if the one found in John 8 share much similarities with that of Mark 6, instead of version in Mark 8. He is aware that many people run into problems when trying to explain such a thing. Meier questions how is it that Mark creates a reword ing of the story, that shares many key points with John 6 and not Mark 8; Mark 6 and John 6 share the feeding story with the five thousand people fed with five loaves of bread and two fishes, while the Mark version feeds four thousand people with seven loaves and a few fishes. On the other note, they both share the Greek name for baskets (two hundred pennyworth of bread), as opposed to Mark 8. According to Meier, Mark 6:32-44 has the greatest numbers of parallels with the independent version of John 6: 1 15. The theory that Mark 6 is a Marcan redaction based solely on Mark 8 is unsustainable. Not only is John 6 is the independent version of the feeding, but also that Mark 6 and Mark 8 represent two different versions of the feeding miracle; both were spread in the pre-Marcan tradition of the first Christian generation. There has been great debates on which elements should be assigned to tradition or redaction in the feeding stories based in Mark 6, Mark 8 and John 6. Meier believes some redaction traits are more in the open. The Johnanne version takes great care in letting the reader know that Jesus already knows what Philip is going to do, even as Philip ask John for information. Another redaction intervention can be found in John 6:4, with the mention of Passover; which is more debatable. The best way in indicating the essential elements of the primitive feeding story is to list the elements most prevalent in at least two out of the three stories, or even from the three. Since John has the independent version of the feeding story, it makes sense for the John version and one of the Marcan versions to be used. According to Meier, the way to tell which version of the feeding of the multitude is primitive it would have to contain the following elements: The Setup (which is the temporal and geographic al setting, the introduction of the characters, and the need to be met). The setting is on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, which is an uninhabited, desolate place. The actors include Jesus, his disciples and a large crowd that had followed due to the miracles performed by Christ. The dialogue in presenting the problem, Jesus and his disciples discuss on the subject about the lack of food for the multitude; there are only five loaves and two fishes. The lack of supplies is pretty obvious. The command in which Jesus tells the crowd to relax on the grass brings the setup to an end and provides the connection to the miracle proper (which is the words and deeds that affect the miracle and the awareness of the miracle taking place). Jesus takes the five loaves, give thanks, he breaks them and gives it to his disciples to distribute, same thing with the fish. Everyone is filled. The Conclusion is the confirmation that the miracle actually happened: There are twelve baskets full of leftov er bread, as the multitude have become full. Other possible conclusions are that Jesus dismisses the crowd, found in the Mark versions, or the crowd acclaims Jesus, found in Johns version. During Jesus pubic ministries, many have believed he performed miracles of exorcism and doubt that the feeding of the multitude goes back to any event in his lifetime. One of the reasons is that many commentators believe the feeding story was strongly influenced by old testament stories, particularly the story of Elisha feeding one hundred people with twenty barley loaves found in 2 Kings 4:42 44, the accounts of Jesus actions over the bread and wine at the Last Supper, and from the regular repetition of the words and actions of Jesus in early Christian worship. It is from these stories that many critics believe the feeding of the multitude arose in the early church. In Meiers view, each sources have left their individual mark on the various versions of the story; some versions more than others. It still remains to be proven if Jewish and Christian influences had any part with creating the Gospel miracle story. The Old Testament story that has the most in common of the feeding of th e multitude is the miracle of feeding by the prophet Elisha. In 2 Kings 4:42-44, a man comes from Baalshalisha, brings Elisha an offering of twenty loaves of barley bread. Elisha orders his servant to give the bread to the people to eat. The servant questions how this amount of bread can satisfy them. Elisha repeats his command with a small prophecy from Yahweh They shall eat and there will be some left over (v 43). The servant obeys and the prophecy is fulfilled (v 44). The parallels of the both feeding of the multitude stories are obvious: (1) The prophets apparent impossible order: a prophets orders his servant to feed a large group of people with a known small amount of bread (20 loaves to hundred men, 5 loaves for five thousand), (2) Bread with some other foodstuff , (3) The objection from his servant: the servant does not understand what is to happen, so he protests and stresses the impossibility of satisfying one hundred people with twenty loaves, (4) The prophets insistent c ommand: overriding his servants objection, insisting the order be carried out as planned, (5) The miracle and its confirmation by way of surplus: when the order is obeyed, the people are fed and there is leftover bread present. In order for another miracle to seem even greater, the number of people fed would naturally be increased in the Gospel story (from one hundred to four or five thousand), and the number of loaves on hand would naturally be decreased (from twenty to seven thousand or five thousand). At the same time, there are apparent differences between the Elisha and the Gospel feeding miracles. (1) There is no exact geographical or temporal setting to the Elisha story, unlike the feeding of the multitude (ex by the Sea of Galilee, near Passover, in the late afternoon), (2) In 2 Kings, there is nothing said of a crowd following Elisha. (3) There is no description to who the hundred people are and it is unclear where they came from in this concise story. (4) There is no indication that the hundred people were suffering from great hunger, lack of food or are unable to get any food by normal means. (5) The miracle story in 2 Kings begins with the surprising command of Elisha, with no preparation, background, or motivation in the narrative. When compared, the conversation between Jesus and his disciples setup the problem of the peoples lack of food before any food is present on site. (6) In the Gospels, the disciples are the ones that supply and locate the little food, and they d o so only after the story is under way. (7) Jesus first commands the crowd to sit on the grass, performing the Jewish household ritual for beginning a formal meal, which does not happen in the Elisha story; including the fish. (8) The questions and objections of the disciples precede his actual order, thus introducing the miracle proper. (9) The amount of leftovers in the Elishas story is unknown, compared to the twelve or seven baskets of bread left over in the Gospel narratives. (10) The basic structure of the concise Elisha story is based on prophecy and fulfillment, not so much the Gospel story. There are many other parallels that some versions of the Gospel story have with the Elisha story; but the parallels are not necessarily part of the most primitive form of the Gospel miracle of feeding. For example, the notion that the bread is barley is found only in Johns version (6:9, 13) of the Gospel story; the same adjective used in the Elisha story. While the mention of barley might be a relic from the primitive form of the Gospel story preserved in John, it is also possible that Johns version is late and secondary. Another possible explanation of the specification of barley loaves, John mentions that the miracle takes place near Passover (which is the time of the barley harvest). In other words, Johns notion that the bread was barley might simply be his way of emphasizing his beloved Passover symbolism. That goes to show that every parallel found between the present Gospel versions of Jesus feeding of the multitude and the Elisha story does not go back to the primitive form of the Gospel story. Even though the Elisha story shares a number of basic elements with the primitive version of the Gospel story, there is much in the Gospel miracle not found in 2 Kings 4:42-44. The other major text suggested as sources for the feeding miracle are the various forms of Jesus words and actions over the bread and wine at the Last Supper. According to Meier, not all commentators agree that the feeding miracle was affected by the Last Supper. Among the two Marcan and the one Johanne versions, the overtones of the Last Supper seem more evident in the structure of the second Marcan story. In Mark 8: 6-7, it says (over the bread) And taking the seven loaves of bread, giving thanks, he broke them and gave them to his disciplesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Over the fish) and pronouncing a blessing over them, he commanded them also to be set out, and they ate. At the Last Supper, Jesus said And taking the loaf of bread, giving thanks, he broke it and gave it to the disciplesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Over the cup) giving thanks or pronouncing a blessing, he gave it to them and they all drank. It is obvious that they share similarities in words. In the second Marcan version, there is a delay in the mentioning of the fish. This causes the bread to dominate the story from the beginning to the end. In the Marcan version of the Last Supper (Mark 14:22 -23), Jesus first pronounces a blessing over the bread and then gives thanks over the wine, with the same participles, in reverse order, that are used in Mark 8:6-7. The parallel with the Last Supper narrative is not quite clear in the first version of the feeding miracle, and less clear in John 6. The commentators that reject the Last Supper as a parallel stress the actions of Jesus over the bread and wine was merely the thanksgiving to God, as done by the head of a Jewish household over the bread that is broken to begin a formal meal. While there is some truth to this claim, it does not take into account a number of factors. (1) Mark 8:1-10 is so significant in the debate is because the tradition has evidently been carefully altered to provide a balanced pattern of giving thanks and then pronouncing a blessing over the dishes of food. The parallel of thanksgiving or blessings over the bread first and then over the side dish (fish) does not match the original Jewish ritual of thanksgiving; but matches the narrative of Jesus parallel thanksgiving or blessing over the bread and wine. (2) Within the context of the Synoptic Gospels, it really misses the point to say that the actions of Jesus over the bread and fish are similar to ones of a Jewish host at a formal meal; the actions of Jesus over the bread do not echo with those of the Synoptic Jesus at the Last Supper. (3) The isolated version of the feeding miracle found in Mark 8:6-7 are mostly likely later developments in the tradition of the Gospel story. Neither the Last Supper nor the Elisha story can prove the presence of fish alongside the bread. The fish tends to be increasingly downplayed in most of the Gospel versions of the feeding story; they are a primitive element rather than a later development in the tradition. In Meiers opinion, there is no explanation for their presence in all the versions of the story of some originating event in the life of Jesus. The earliest form of the feeding miracle available to us does not seem to have crossed with Elisha or Last Supper motifs and some of the elements of the earliest form (notably the fish are not explainable on the g rounds of the Elisha and Last Supper traditions. Rather, the account of Jesus feeding the multitude was defected. The stories of Elisha and the Last Supper do not seem to have created the Gospel feeding miracle. (4) Although the feeding miracle concerns the multiplication of loaves and fish, in every version of the feeding miracle the fish falls into the background. The subject is kept mostly on the bread, probably because the bread offers a direct cross-reference to the Last Supper. As seen in the second Marcan version of the feeding miracle (Mark 8:1-10), the story speaks almost entirely of loaves of bread or leftover pieces of bread. A few fish is only mentioned in one verse (8:7). Meier takes an unbiased position. On one hand, he rejects the views of the commentators that the Elisha story or the Last Supper had any influence on the feeding miracle. The parallels are so clear. On the other hand, the parallels are not much that the origin of the feeding miracle narrative can be en tirely explained merely by application to the Elisha story or the Last Supper tradition. The Elisha story and Last Supper tradition cannot completely explain the origin of the story of Jesus feeding the multitude. The question that comes into place is whether there are indications that some historical event in Jesus ministry may be behind the early Christian narrative? The answer comes from two criteria of historicity. (1) When compared to most Gospel miracle stories, the feeding miracle is supported by an unusually strong verification of multiple sources. It is not only verified independently in both Mark and John, but also two variant forms (cycles) of the tradition lying behind Marks Gospel; each one begins with one version of the feeding miracle (Mark 6:32-44 and Mark 8:1-10). Before the cycles were created, the two versions of the feeding miracle would have spread as independent units, the first version attracting itself to the story of Jesus walking on the water (a development that can be witnessed in John 6), while the second version did not receive much detail. B ehind all the versions of the miracle story, it would have had some primitive form. (2) Jesus normally spoke of the coming kingdom of God under the image of a banquet. The emphasis of a banquet or festival meal as an image of the kingdom were not just words spoken; it played an important role in Jesus actions as well. Jesus has been known for his presence at festival banquets (Mark 2:15-17; Matthew 11:18-19; Luke 7:33-34). Based on Meiers opinion, in comparison to the various celebrations of table fellowship hosted by Jesus, the most memorable one was the feeding of the multitude; due to the unusual number of participants; also this one was held at the Sea of Galilee, rather than in a town or village. Some have suggested that Jesus and his disciples shared what little food they had with others, which influenced the rest of the crowd (especially the rich people present in the crowd) by their good example to share their supplies until all were fed. Other critics came up with the assumption that Jesus hid supplies of food in a cave and made his disciples distribute it to the crowd. Albert Schweitzer gave his own twist; Jesus gave everyone in the crowd a piece of bread as a symbol of the heavenly banquet to come; the meal was thus the antitype of the messianic feastà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a sacrament of redemption. Meier believes the sources do not allow us to specify the details of the event, especially since the influence of both the Elisha miracle story and the Last Supper tradition on the retelling of the story in Christian decades. Whether something actually miraculous happened is not open to verification by the means of a historian; it ultimately depends on a persons worldview, not what historical investigation can tell us about the event. In the last analysis, nothing connects these widely different stories together. For some time, it has seemed that at least one link, non-historically, would connect all the natural miracles together. But now the common link has been broken by the story of Jesus feeding the multitude, in Meiers view, that goes back to some memorable meal of the public ministry. Once again, the common category called nature miracles is viewed to be an illusion. According to Daniel Harrington, the story of the miracle feeding is the only miracle of Jesus proved in all four Gopsels, and the only one that is recounted in two forms. The feedings occur in the wilderness or desolate places and are gift miracles similar to the water from the rock (Exod 17:1-7) and the miraculous feeding of the Israelites through manna in the wilderness (Exod 16:1-36). Daniel says the Wisdom tradition feeding is linked with teaching and bread is linked with knowledge. Harrington states the closest the story in the Old Testament that parallels the miracle story found in Mark is the feeding story of Elisha; he agrees with Meier. In both stories, the main characters (Jesus, Elisha) give an impossible order involving a small amount of food and a large crowd to feed. In both cases, there is food left over even though there are more people than there is food. The narrative follows the general structure of a miracle story with a setting that describes a situation of need, a request, the mighty work itself, and some demonstration of the action. There are a number of elements that brings up the question of relations between the two Marcian feedings. They have similarity in setting, content, and structure but also, significant differeneces. The differences are the number of individuals in the crowd (5000 vs. 4000), the amount of food originally available, and the disclosure between Jesus and the disciples. Harrington points out that in Mark 8:1-10, the disciples give no indication of knowing that Jesus will perform his mighty work, even after the participating in the feeding of Mark 6:30-44. There have been various proposals to help relate the narratives: (1) there was a single early narrative that took different forms in the tradition, (2) Mark 8: 1-10 is an early pre-Markan narrative that Mark uses to compose the one found in Mark 6:30-44 ( which can detested by Meier, himself); and (3) there were two different pre-Marcian versions of the story and both were edited by Mark. There is a belief by the majority of interpreters that there was an early narrative that the individual evangelists reworked and adapted to their theological perspectives. Harrington agrees with Meier on the thought that all the feeding stories and the Last Supp narrative, despite the significant differences, describe Jesus saying a blessing or a prayer of thanksgiving; taking bread, breaking it, and giving it to disciples or crowds to eat. The similarities outweigh the differences. One option that should be avoided is the belief that the people were so moved by the words of Jesus that they divided their food with others, as Meier also stated. The narrative rather gives a picture of Jesus as compassionate toward the hungry people and concerned about their physical hunger. Harrington believed a church that invokes the name of Jesus must be concerned about the spiritual and physical hungers of people today. According to William Lane, the account of the feeding of the multitude has a particular significance in the framework of Marks Gospel. The elaborate introduction (Mark 6:30-34), the extended dialogue with the disciples (Mark 6:35-38) , the frequent references to this occasion (Mark 6: 52; 8:17-21) and the sequel in the feeding of the four thousand (Mark 8:1-10), shows that the evangelist regarded this event as crucial for understanding the dignity of Jesus. The book of Mark shows the glory of God unveiled through the abundant provision of bread in the wilderness where Jesus is Israels faithful shepherd. The extended conversation of Jesus with his disciples concerning bread is the distinctive element in the Marcan account of the feeding of the multitude, as Meier would agree with. Overall, I do believe the feeding of the five thousand found in Mark 8 is the redaction of Mark 6. It only makes sense, because the version of the story in Mark 6 and John 6 share many similiarities , compared to the version in Mark 8; Mark 6 and John 6 share the feeding the story with the five thousand people fed with five loaves of bread and two fishes, while the Mark 8 version feeds four thousand people with seven loaves of bread and two fishes. It goes to show that the feeding story found in John 6 is the independent version of the feeding miracle and that Mark versions represent two different versions of the feeding miracle. Growing up in the church, I would say that I strongly disagree with Meirs belief that Jesus performed miracles of exorcism, during his public ministries. I was taught that Jesus performed miraculous works because he had compassion and love for his people, and wanted his disciples and follows to witness the good works of the Lord, his Father. I do agree that the Old Testaments stories (particularly the story of the Elisha feeding) and the Last Supper do share many similarities, but I do not see substantial evidence to say that these two stories influenced the miracle feeding of the five thousand. As Meier said it, I also believe it still remains to be proven if Jewish and Christian influences had any part with creating the Gospel miracle story. Even though the Last Supper has parallels with the miracle feeding story found in Mark 8, the parallel in Mark 6 is not quite clear and less clear in John 6. Like Meier, I believe the actions of Jesus over the bread and wine was him giving than ksgiving to God, also done by the head of a Jewish household over the bread that is broken to begin a formal meal and sometime he acts out constantly. The parallel of thanksgiving or blessings over the bread first and then over the fish does not resemble the original Jewish ritual of Thanksgiving; only the narrative of Jesus parallel over the bread and wine. I also agree with Meier that the Elisha Story and the Last Supper tradition cannot completely explain the origin of the story of Jesus feeding the multitude. It is debatable as to whether there are any indications that some historical event in Jesus ministry may be behind the early Christian miracle stories. I do believe the emphasis of a banquet or festival meal as a image of the kingdom were not words spoken, but played an important role in Jesus actions; he was known for his presence at festival banquets. I strongly agree with Meier that the most memorable banquet or festival meal is the feeding of the multitude. Growing up, I always knew and was aware of the feeding miracle; I knew a little bit of the Last Supper and knew nothing of the Elisha story. Personally, the feeding story was one of the stories that always stuck to me. I believe that whether something miraculous happening in the feeding miracle depends on a persons worldview, not from the results of the historical investigation of an event. It is up to everyone to do their own result and have their own beliefs.

Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and P

Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia In Colonial Virginia in 1661, Rebecca Nobles was sentenced to ten lashes for bearing an illegitimate child. Had she been an indentured servant she would also have been ordered to serve her master an additional two years to repay his losses incurred during her pregnancy. After 1662, had she been an enslaved African woman she would not have been prosecuted, because in that year the Colonial government declared children born to slave women the property of their mother's master. A child born to a slave brought increased wealth, whereas the child of an indentured servant brought increased financial responsibility. This evolving legislation in Colonial Virginia reflected elite planter interests in controlling women's sexuality for economic gain. Race is also defined and manipulated to reinforce the authority and economic power of elite white men who enacted colonial legislation. As historian Kathleen M. Brown demonstrates in her book Good Wives, Nasty Wenches and Anxious Patriarchs, the concepts of gender and race intersect as colonial Virginians consolidated power and defined their society. Indeed, gender and race were integral to that goal. In particular, planter manipulations of social categories had a profound effect on the economic and political climate in Colonial Virginia. First, I want to establish that English settlers did not bring a concrete ideology of race to their new colony. As Brown explains, while English traders had contact with other peoples in Ireland and on the West African coast, the everyday English concept of race was very much abstract in the early seventeenth century. That is not to say that the English did not justify their domination of other peo... ...usion that race is deployed "in the construction of power relations."* Indeed a "metalanguage" of race, to use Higginbotham's term, was employed by colonial powers to define black women as separate from English women, and that process is deconstructed in Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, Anxious Patriarchs. However, Brown's analysis rests mainly on the shifting English concepts of gender and race imposed on colonial society by the white elite, becoming at times a metalanguage of colonial gender. Nonetheless, Brown's analysis of overlapping social constructions is instructive for understanding the ways gender and race can be manipulated to buttress dominant hierarchies. Works Cited: *Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham. "African American Women's History and the Metalanguage of Race" in Feminism and History, ed. Joan Wallach Scott (NY: Oxford University Press, 1996), 201.

Stereotypes and Stereotyping in Susan Glaspells Trifles :: Trifles Essays

Stereotypes in Trifles I like this play quite a lot. It's got murder, mystery and deceit. It's interesting that the play bases a lot on stereotypes. The men are the sheriff, deputy and the attorney sent out to discover the details of the murder of a man found hanged in his bed. They look carefully in the bedroom and outside in the barn for clues and the women are sent in, I think initially, to gather some things for Mrs. Wright. The women are mocked at by the men. Worrying about things like jelly freezing and sewing. Mrs. Hale "Oh, her fruit; it did freeze. She worried about that when it turned so cold. She said the fire'd go out and her jars would break"; Hale "Well, women are used to worrying over trifles." They are not taken seriously. They are women and are not intelligent enough to understand the concept of solving a murder. The men forgot, it's the little things that bother people the most and for Mrs. Wright, it must have been death of her canary. I think the canary symbolized Mrs. Wright. Mrs. Hale describes her; "She -- come to think of it, she was kind of like a bird herself - real sweet and pretty, but kind of timid and - fluttery. How - she - did - change"; and like a bird, Mrs. Wright even sang in a choir. But after she got married, every thing stopped. She didn't sing anymore or attend social functions. Like a bird, her house became her cage. The only happiness that she appears to have is with this bird. The bird probably sang when she could not. He was probably a companion to her, she had no children. And like her, he was also caged. Because we do not know, we can only guess that her husband killed her bird. If he killed the bird then he would have killed the only thing that was important to her. He killed her once when he married her and caged her in that house, and he killed her again when he destroyed her bird. "No,. Wright wouldn't like the bird - a thing that sang. She used to sing. He killed that, too." When Mrs. Wright was used to its singing and her world became quiet again, it was too much for her take.

Interpreting Dreams Essay -- Freudian, Jungian and Cognitive

Most of us have experienced a dream, be it a nightmare or a pleasant walk in a forest. It was frequently believed that dreams encompass a coded message that might be expressing our hidden wishes, things that happened in the past or even predict the future. In the past, there have been many attempts to unravel the secret hidden behind the dreams and so far the world came up with three main theories of interpreting the dreams (Freudian, Jungian and Cognitive)(Wade, Travis 1998). In this essay I will attempt to analyze my dream by using each of the theories mentioned above, then compare the outcomes as well as their possible connections to my life and in the end determine, which one of these theories is the most accurate and thus as a laic may say the â€Å"best† one. However, I have never believed that my dreams have any meaning and in the course of this analysis I will try to prove that the Cognitive view alone offers the most reasonable explanation of my dreams. My dream had begun on a deserted shore. After a while, I was able to find a little cottage that belonged to a fisherman. I needed from him a boat in order to get to an island (it looked like a great mountain that was rising from the water and was covered with snow). All of a sudden, I sat in the boat with four of my roommates as well as with my father and grandfather. However, only then have we found out that we do not have enough food to get to that island, so we turned our boat back to the harbor. Upon our return, we had gone into a forest that was covering almost all of the land that we were able to see. After a period of time, the length of which I was not able to determine, we have found an arbor and there were many deer running around it. But instead of shooting any of them, I shot an old ugly pig with six bullets. That was the end of my dream. The next day in the morning I wrote it down as soon as I woke up. Sigmund Freud, in his famous book â€Å"Interpretation of Dreams† (1900) presented his new theories about determining the real meaning of our dreams. According to his book, our dreams in their core represent our deepest wishes, desires and instinctual thoughts. However, as these dreams in their original form (latent contents) were unacceptable for our consciousness, the â€Å"censor†(an unconscious mechanism) shaped them into an acceptable and symbolic form (manifest content). These symbols may... ...ne of his lectures: â€Å"The best interpretation (of a dream) is the one that has the greatest logical meaning and is mostly helping you to solve these problems.† (Johnson 2002). From this point of view, the best logical and reasonable explanation of my dream has provided the Cognitive View, which, as it was mentioned in the paragraph above, assumes that all of our dreams are just leftover memories. In my personal opinion it is true, because I was truly able to find in that dream of mine certain aspects that belonged to my past. Of course, I am not claiming that the theories of dream analysis of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung that worked for decades are wrong, but in my case the outcome of these two theories was too general as well as obscure for me to believe that they represent the best way of dream analysis. Works Cited: Freud, S. (1900). Interpretation of Dreams: NY, New York. Gifford, T. (n.d.). Myths Dreams Symbols. Retrieved October 15th, 2002 from http://www.mythsdreamssymbols.com/ Johnson, M. (2002). Lecture, General Psychology, University of New York / Prague, Prague, Czech Republic. Wade, C. & Travis, C. (1998). Psychology (5th Ed.) New York: Adison Wesley

Directed Variation by Jean Baptiste Lamarck

By comparing current species with fossil forms, Lamarck could see what appeared to be several lines of descent, each chronological series of older to younger fossils leading to modern species. On the ground floor were microscopic organisms, which Lamarck believed were continually generated spontaneously from inanimate material. At the top of evolutionary escalators were the most complex forms (plants and animals).Evolution was driven by innate tendency toward greater and greater complexity, which Lamarck seemed to equate with perfection. As organisms attained perfection, they became better and better adapted to their environments. Thus Lamarck believed that evolution responded to organisms’ sentiments interieurs, or â€Å"felt needs. †(Lamarck 1803). Lamarck is remembered most for the mechanism he proposed to explain how specific adaptations evolve. It entailed two principles.First is the use and disuse, the idea that those organs of the body used more frequently and ex tensively to cope with the environment become larger and stronger, while those organs that are not used deteriorate. Among the examples that Lamarck cited were the blacksmith developing a bigger bicep in the arm that works the hammer and a giraffe stretching its neck to new lengths in pursuit of leaves to eat (Lamarck 1803). Lamarck’s second principle of adaptation is the inheritance of acquired characteristics.Lamarck believed that the modifications an organism acquires during its lifetime can be passed along to its offspring. The long neck of the giraffe, Lamarck reasoned, evolved gradually as a cumulative product of a great many generations of ancestors stretching higher and higher. There’s however no evidence that acquired characteristics can be inherited. Blacksmith may increase strength and stamina by a life time of pounding with a heavy hammer, but these acquired traits do not change genes transmitted by gametes to offspring (Lamarck 1803).The Lamarckian theory of variation is ridiculed by some today because of its erroneous assumption that acquired characteristics are inherited; but in Lamarck’s era, the concept of inheritance was generally accepted. T o most of Lamarck’s contemporaries, however, the mechanism of evolution was an irrelevant issue. In the creationist- essentialist view that still prevailed, species were fixed and no theory of evolution could be taken seriously. Lamarck was vilified especially by Cuvier, who would have no part of evolution.In retrospect Lamarck deserves credit for his unorthodox theory which was quite visionary in many respects: in its claim evolution is the best explanation for both the fossil record and current diversity of life; in its emphasis on the great age of the earth; and its stress on adaptation to the environment as a primary product of evolution, (Lamarck 1803). Conclusion The major aspects of the Lamarkianism are founded on the fact that environment contributes much to the develo pment of new traits in population.Ignoring the basic principles of biology that acquired traits are never transmitted to the next generation, these biologists believe in the contrary and that eventually these acquired traits form part of the genome (Lamarck 1803). I have written on Lamarck because his evolutionary argument one of the toughest criticism. Therefore, reading on Lamarck can only help one revisit the biological knowledge on evolution with respect to the general knowledge in biology. In short, it was quite interesting reading about Lamarck.

Duke of Edinburgh Report

————————————————- Duke of Edinburgh Expedition Report Aim: Observe litter in remote areas and compare with areas accessible by motorised transport Friday Amount of litter: Minor Thoughts: Started our expedition on the top of a hill, near a cafe/ pub which is where we found the litter; a box of beers. Apart from that the route was very difficult to navigate at first because the footpaths were almost non-existent. Furthermore, because of the remote location there was little disruption to the land, grass grew long, wild and marshes were hard to spot. There were few fields for cattle and many times our group had to take bearings because any signs, footprints and the footpath were not visible. This was probably the most physically challenging day as there were many hills and inclines. Photos: Saturday Amount of litter: Moderate Thoughts: When exiting the campsite, there was visible litter on the floor. The route for this day was much easier and accessible than Friday because it was mostly over flat ground and there were very visible and well used paths to walk on. The entire group is skilled at reading a map, compass and taking bearings as we did not get lost once. There was a great amount of teamwork because we constantly checked our position, while taking it in turns to read the map and lead. This made the expedition more enjoyable as it spread responsibility evenly. We found more litter on the side roads, but none on the footpaths. Photos: Sunday Amount of litter: Large Thoughts: Most of this consisted of walking through or around deep mud and fields which contained cattle. This was not enjoyable because there were calves with their mothers; this made them aggressive and slowed our progress. Also we alked through many suburban areas that would be accessible by motorised transport and found lots of litter. In a town we found many bins next to each other, but there was still litter barely 50 meters away. The route this day took us through popular public footpaths, in which we found the most litter. Photos: Summary: Over the course of the expedition, we discovered and concluded that as a remote area becomes more accessible to motorised transpor t, amount of litter in that area increases. This was a very interesting and enjoyable expedition.

Challenges of Money Market Mkt in India Essay

The India money market is a monetary system that involves the lending and borrowing of short-term funds. India money market has seen exponential growth just after the globalization initiative in 1991. It has been observed that financial institutions do employ money market instruments for financing short-term monetary requirements of various sectors such as agriculture, finance and manufacturing. The performance of the India money market has been outstanding in the past 20 years. The central bank of the country – the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has always been playing the major role in regulating and controlling the India money market. The intervention of RBI is varied – curbing crisis situations by reducing the cash reserve ratio (CRR) or infusing more money in the economy. Money market instruments take care of the borrowers’ short-term needs and render the required liquidity to the lenders. The varied types of India money market instruments are treasury bills, repurchase agreements, commercial papers, certificate of deposit, and bankers acceptance. The major players in the money market are Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Discount and finance House of India (DFHI), banks, financial institutions, mutual funds, government and the giant corporate houses. Indian money market has a dichotomic structure. It has a simultaneous existence of both organized and unorganized money markets. The organized structure consists of the RBI , all scheduled and commercial banks and other recognized financial institutions as mentioned above. However, the unorganized part of the market consists of local moneylenders, indigenous bankers, traders, etc. This part of the market is outside the purview of the RBI. Issues and challenges of the Indian money market The money market in India has undergone tremendous developments since past twenty years. However, it is still not free of certain rigidities that are hampering the growth of the market. They are: 1. Dichotomy between Organized and Unorganized Sectors: The most important defect of the Indian money market is its division into two sectors: (a) the organised sector and (b) the unorganized sector. There is little contact, coordination and cooperation between the two sectors. In such conditions it is difficult for the Reserve Bank to ensure uniform and effective implementations of monetary policy in both the sectors. 2. Predominance of Unorganized Sector: Another important defect of the Indian money market is its predominance of unorganised sector. The indigenous bankers occupy a significant position in the money-lending business in the rural areas. In this unorganized sector, no clear-cut distinction is made between short-term and long-term and between the purposes of loans. These indigenous bankers, which constitute a large portion of the money market, remain outside the organized sector. Therefore, they seriously restrict the Reserve Bank’s control over the money market, 3. Wasteful Competition: Wasteful competition exists not only between the organised and unorganised sectors, but also among the members of the two sectors. The relation between various segments of the money market are not cordial; they are loosely connected with each other and generally follow separatist tendencies. For example, even today, the State Bank of Indian and other commercial banks look down upon each other as rivals. Similarly, competition exists between the Indian commercial banks and foreign banks. 4. Absence of All-India Money Market: Indian money market has not been organised into a single integrated all-Indian market. It is divided into small segments mostly catering to the local financial needs. For example, there is little contact between the money markets in the bigger cities, like, Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta and those in smaller towns. 5. Inadequate Banking Facilities: Indian money market is inadequate to meet the financial need of the economy. Although there has been rapid expansion of bank branches in recent years particularly after the nationalization of banks, yet vast rural areas still exist without banking facilities. As compared to the size and population of the country, the banking institutions are not enough. 6. Shortage of Capital: Indian money market generally suffers from the shortage of capital funds. The availability of capital in the money market is insufficient to meet the needs of industry and trade in the country. The main reasons for the shortage of capital are: (a) low saving capacity of the people; (b) inadequate banking facilities, particularly in the rural areas; and (c) undeveloped banking habits among the people. 7. Seasonal Shortage of Funds: A Major drawback of the Indian money market is the seasonal stringency of credit and higher interest rates during a part of the year. Such a shortage invariably appears during the busy months from November to June when there is excess demand for credit for carrying on the harvesting and marketing operations in agriculture. As a result, the interest rates rise in this period. On the contrary, during the slack season, from July to October, the demand for credit and the rate of interest decline sharply. 8. Diversity of Interest Rates: Another defect of Indian money market is the multiplicity and disparity of interest rates. In 1931, the Central Banking Enquiry Committee wrote: â€Å"The fact that a call rate of 3/4 per cent, a hundi rate of 3 per cent, a bank rate of 4 per cent, a bazar rate of small traders of 6.25 per cent and a Calcutta bazar rate for bills of small trader of 10 per cent can exist simultaneously indicates an extraordinary sluggishness of the movement of credit between various markets.† The interest rates also differ in various centres like Bombay, Calcutta, etc. Variations in the interest rate structure is largely due to the credit immobility because of inadequate, costly and time-consuming means of transferring money. Disparities in the interest rates adversely affect the smooth and effective functioning of the money market. 9. Absence of Bill Market: The existence of a well-organized bill market is essential for the proper and efficient working of money market. Unfortunately, in spite of the serious efforts made by the Reserve Bank of India, the bill market in India has not yet been fully developed. The short-term bills form a much smaller proportion of the bank finance in India as compared to that in the advanced countries. Many factors are responsible for the underdeveloped bill market in India: * Most of the commercial transactions are made in terms of cash. * Cash credit is the main form of borrowing from the banks. Cash credit is given by the banks against the security of commodities. No bills are involved in this type of credit. * The practice of advancing loans by the sellers also limits the use of bills. * Heavy stamp duty discourages the use of exchange bills. * Absence of acceptance houses is another factor responsible for the underdevelopment of bill market in India. * In their desire to ensure greater liquidity and public confidence, the Indian banks prefer to invest their funds in first class government securities than in exchange bills. * The RBI also prefers to extend rediscounting facility to the commercial banks against approved securities. Comparison of Indian money market with Developed & Developing economies MONEY MARKET IN A DEVELOPED ECONOMY (with the US in reference) The domestic money market in the United States carries out the largest volume of transactions of any such market in the world; its participants include the most heterogeneous group of financial and nonfinancial concerns to be found in any money market; it permits trading in an unusually wide variety of money substitutes; and it is less centralized geographically than the money market of any other country. Although there has always been a clustering of money market activities in New York City and much of the country’s participation in the international money market centers there, a process of continuous change during the 20th century has produced a genuinely national money market. The unit banking system: This system has led inevitably to striking differences between money market arrangements in the United States and those of other countries. At times, some smaller banks almost inevitably find that the wholesale facilities of the money market cannot provide promptly the funds needed to meet unexpected reserve drains, as deposits move about the country from one bank to another. MONEY MARKET IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Well-developed money markets exist in only a few high-income countries. In other countries money markets are narrow, poorly integrated, and in many cases virtually nonexistent. Despite the many differences among countries, one can say in general that the degree of development of a country’s financial system, including its money markets, is directly related to the level of its economy. Most developing countries, except those having socialist systems, have the encouragement of money markets as a policy objective, if only to provide outlets for short-term government securities. At the same time many of these governments pursue low-interest-rate policies in order to reduce the cost of government debt and to encourage investment. Such policies discourage saving and make money market instruments unattractive. Nevertheless, a demand for short-term funds and a supply of them exist in all market-oriented economies. In many developing countries these pressures have led to â€Å"unorganized money markets,† which are often highly developed in urban areas Such markets are unorganized because they are outside â€Å"normal† financial institutions; they manage to escape government controls over interest rates; but at the same time they do not function very effectively because interest rates are high and contacts between localities and among borrowers and lenders are limited. Money Market Instruments in India: 1. COMMERCIAL PAPERS (CPs) : Commercial Paper (CP) is a negotiable short-term unsecured promissory note with fixed maturity, issued by well-rated companies generally sold on discount basis. It does not originate from any specific self-liquidating trade transaction like commercial bill which generally arise out of specific trade or commercial transaction. CP was introduced in India in 1990 with a view to enabling highly rated corporate borrowers to diversify their sources of short-term borrowings and to provide an additional instrument to investors. The CP rates usually lie between prime lending rate of commercial banks and some benchmark interest rate like 91-day Treasury bill rate, bank rate, 3 month MIBOR, Average Call Money Rate, etc. Except for the bank rate, which is a policy- induced rate, other rates are market determined. Risks associated with Cps: Credit Risk: Moderate to high. The ratings of the company issuing the commercial paper should be monitored; i.e., A-1/P-1. Liquidity Risk: Moderate. If a company has credit problems it may receive a negative credit watch, which will lead to a rating being downgraded. Commercial paper also may be somewhat difficult to sell. Market Risk: Moderate, due to the short-term nature of this security. CHALLENEGES ASSOCIATED WITH CPs: * Higher financial costs force organizational decisions and changes * Substantial initial collateral requirements * More risky as debt holders can force closure of MFI * More tricky cash flow management as principal is repaid * Early negotiations require a new set of skills and contacts * Local banks may not be willing to be cooperative * Loans may be dollarized in an inflationary situation * Too many subsidized loans can retard move to market rate 2. CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSITS (CDs) : This scheme was introduced in July 1989, to enable the banking system to mobilize bulk deposits from the market, which they can have at competitive rates of interest. The major features are:   Who can issue- Scheduled commercial banks (except RRBs) and All India Financial Institutions within their `Umbrella limit’. Investors- Individuals (other than minors), corporations, companies, trusts, funds, associations etc Maturity -Min: 7 days Max : 12 Months (in case of FIs minimum 1 year and maximum 3 years). Amount- Min: Rs.1 lac, beyond which in multiple of Rs.1 lac Interest Rate- Market related. Fixed or floating Loan- Against collateral of CD not permitted Pre-mature cancellation- Not allowed Transfer, Endorsement & delivery- Any time Other conditions †¢ If payment day is holiday, to be paid on next preceding business day †¢Issued at a discount to face value †¢Duplicate can be issued after giving a public notice & obtaining indemnity CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH CDs: * No additions are permitted to be made to any CD. Unless otherwise required by law CDs may not be withdrawn prior to maturity. When one purchases a CD, he has to agree with the issuing depository institution to keep your funds on deposit for the term of the CD. * CDs are not automatically renewed * CDs are relatively illiquid and taxable instruments. Hence, generally people do not find an incentive to hold CDs. * One might not get a fixed interest rate if you choose the wrong type of CD. It’s important to understand the distinction between variable-rate CDs (which can be less predictable) and those that offer fixed rates. 3. TREASURY BILLS (T-BILLS) : Treasury bills, popularly known as T-bills, are short-term finance bills issued by the government. They are not backed by any trade transaction, like the commercial bills. These bills are highly liquid and risk-free as they are backed by a guarantee from the government. They were earlier issued for 91 days but now there are also 182 days and 364 days treasury bills. These treasury bills are floated through auctions conducted by RBI. The Reserve Bank of India as the leader and controller of money market, buys and sells these treasury bills. The buying and selling operations are conducted by DFHI on behalf of RBI for stabilizing the money market. Who can buy – Treasury bills can be purchased by any one (including individuals) except State govt. These are issued by RBI and sold through fortnightly or monthly auctions at varying discount rate depending upon the bids. Denomination – Minimum amount of face value Rs.1L and in multiples thereof. There is no specific amount/limit on the extent to which these can be issued or purchased. Maturity : 91-days TBs, 182-days TBs, 364-days TBs and two types of 14-days TBills. Rate of interest -Market determined, based on demand for and supply of funds in the money market. CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH T-BILLS: * T-Bills do not fetch very attractive yields. * Though T-bills are sold through auction in order to ensure market rates for the investor, in actuality, competitive bids are almost absent. The RBI is compelled to accept these non-competitive bids , hence, adequate returns are not available. It makes T-bills unpopular. * Generally , the investors hold T-Bills till maturity and they do not come for circulation. Hence, active trading and mobility in T-bill market is adversely affected. 4. REPURCHASE AGREEMENT (REPO AND REVERSE REPO) : Repo is a money market instrument, which enables collateralized short term borrowing and lending through sale/purchase operations in debt instruments. Under a repo transaction, a holder of securities sells them to an investor with an agreement to repurchase at a predetermined date and rate. In the case of a repo, the forward clean price of the bonds is set in advance at a level which is different from the spot clean price by adjusting the difference between repo interest and coupon earned on the security. A reverse repo is the mirror image of a repo. For, in a reverse repo, securities are acquired with a simultaneous commitment to resell. Hence whether a transaction is a repo or a reverse repo is determined only in terms of who initiated the first leg of the transaction. When the reverse repurchase transaction matures, the counterparty returns the security to the entity concerned and receives its cash along with a profit spread. One factor which encourages an organization to enter into reverse repo is that it earns some extra income on its otherwise idle cash. Broadly, there are four types of repos available in the international market when classified with regard to maturity of underlying securities, pricing, term of repo etc. They comprise buy-sell back repo, classic repo bond borrowing and lending and tripartite repos. CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH REPURCHASE AGREEMENTS: * As far as risks are concerned although repos are collateralized transactions they are still exposed to counterparty risk and the issuer risk associated with the collateral. As far as the counterparty risk is concerned, the investor should be able to liquidate the securities received as collateral, thus largely offsetting any loss. Against this the seller /lender of bonds will hold cash or other securities as protection against non-return of the lent securities. In both the cases it is to be ensured that the realizable value equals or exceeds the exposure. * There is also the concentration risk resulting from illiquid issues which are used as collateral in the transaction. * Again, even where global agreements are signed full transfer of ownership as per contractual protections could be enforced only where a clean legal opinion is available in respect of jurisdiction concerned. In other words, repos are also prone to legal risks if care is not taken. 5. MONEY MARKET MUTUAL FUNDS (MMMF): 6. COLLATERALIZED BORROWING AND LENDING OBLIGATION (CBLO) It is a money market instrument as approved by RBI, is a product developed by CCIL (Clearing Council of India Ltd) . CBLO is a discounted instrument available in electronic book entry form for the maturity period ranging from one day to 90 Days (can be made available up to one year as per RBI guidelines). CBLO is explained as under: †¢ An obligation by the borrower to return the money borrowed, at a specified future date; †¢ An authority to the lender to receive money lent, at a specified future date with an option/privilege to transfer the authority to another person for value received; †¢ An underlying charge on securities held in custody (with CCIL) for the amount borrowed/lent. Banks, financial institutions, primary dealers, mutual funds and co-operative banks, who are members of NDS, are allowed to participate in CBLO transactions. Non-NDS members like corporate, co-operative banks, NBFCs, Pension/Provident Funds, Trusts etc. are allowed to participate by obtaining Associate Membership to CBLO Segment. In order to enable the market participants to borrow and lend funds, CCIL provides the Dealing System through: – Indian Financial Network (INFINET), a closed user group to the Members of the Negotiated Dealing System (NDS) who maintain Current account with RBI. – Internet gateway for other entities who do not maintain Current account with RBI.